ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ
Падение тоталитарного режима и развенчание коммунистической
идеологии, окончание "холодной войны" и переход к принципиально новым
отношениям с западным миром, распад СССР и потеря Россией роли метрополии среди
окружающих ее народов, что зачастую сопровождалось конфликтами, в том числе
кровавыми военными столкновениями, завоевание гражданских свобод, в первую
очередь свободы совести, слова и убеждений, активизация различных религиозных и
общественных организаций, — все это вызывает как в самой России, так и за ее
пределами стремление пересмотреть и заново осознать смысл и значение,
особенности и роль того, что представляет собой лицо России, ее традиционные
ценности и идеалы, характерные черты ее духа, — т. е. менталитета и социальной
психологии ее многонационального народа, а также места его в общемировом
развитии.
Последние достижения и искания как в области исторической
науки, так и в области современной политологии показывают, сколь необходимо
основательное изучение духовных основ исторического развития того или иного
народа, выражающихся в социальной психологии, все богатство которой в свою
очередь отражается в верованиях и чаяниях, в способах богослужения и в житийной
литературе, в фольклоре, в летописях, в публицистике, нравственном богословии,
художественной литературе и политических выступлениях.
Одной из существенных особенностей российской
религиозно-философской и общественно-политической мысли на всем протяжении
российской истории является существование мирной доктрины, до недавних пор не
привлекавшей внимания исследователей. Эта мирная доктрина представляла собой по
существу ненасильственную социально-этическую или международно-правовую форму
отпора насилию. В этом смысле история русской мирной доктрины гораздо шире
истории пацифизма, ибо доктрина эта включает в себя стремление к сдвигам в
общественном сознании, попытку создать идеал отношений между людьми,
проникнутый милосердием, терпимостью, социальной справедливостью, защитой
униженных и оскорбленных.
347
Исследования интернационального коллектива авторов, посвященные
истории российской мирной идеи в ее международном и внутреннем аспектах и
охватывающие практически все этапы развития отечественной истории от
древнейшего периода до наших дней, позволяют выявить некоторые закономерности и
тенденции, которые несомненно влияют не только на то, что происходит в жизни
России сегодня, но и на процессы развития международных отношений. Вот
некоторые из них.
Идеал мира как отсутствие войн и вооруженных конфликтов
существовал в народном сознании еще с домонгольского периода. Он
просматривается на материале фольклора и летописей и свидетельствует о
стремлении народа жить в мире с соседями, с другими племенами и государствами.
Мир в этих памятниках народной мысли выступает как идеал бытия, как нечто
весьма желаемое, но трудно достижимое.
Однако этим не исчерпывается его содержание.
Общехристианская традиция, освященная заповедями "не убий" и
"возлюби ближнего как самого себя" получает мощное развитие в
православном идеале святости, в духовном строе и практике жизни русского монашества.
Воспитанная церковной литургической школой, которая постоянно проповедовала мир
внутренний, духовный, осознанный как высший идеал бытия, православная мирная
доктрина включала в себя отказ от эгоистических устремлений, утверждение себя в
любви к Богу и к ближнему, прощение и самопожертвование.
Вместе с тем идеал мира, проповедовавшийся православным
богослужением и житийной литературой, не означал, что пацифизм стал
неотъемлемым учением Русской Православной церкви. Причин тому немало.
Специфическое развитие российской истории приводило к постоянным войнам — либо
оборонительным, направленным против нашествий иноплеменников с Востока и
Запада, либо наступательным, расширяющим ее территорию. Полная войн история
выдвигала в общественном сознании на первое место идеи защиты отечества от
насилия извне. Немалую роль сыграли также традиции авторитаризма самодержавия,
существовавшего в условиях полного отсутствия парламентаризма, и веками
длившегося крепостничества, приводившего к массовому и каждодневному нарушению
прав человека. Характерным для духовной жизни народа явилось также и то, что
при сильном влиянии Православной церкви, подчиненной самодержавному
государству, в России не сложились сколько-нибудь значительные национальные
еретические и протестантские течения, многие из которых на Западе были
носителями пацифистских идей.
348
Поэтому пацифизм в России, как, впрочем, и в других странах,
не стал сколько-нибудь влиятельным идейным течением. Война и государственное
насилие издревле считались естественными элементами политики. Российская же
история традиционно относилась к самым жестоким и кровавым. Мирным тенденциям
народного сознания противостояли имперский характер государства и тоталитарные
устремления центральной власти. Со своей стороны народ, воспитанный церковью
действительно в смирении и долготерпении и действительно проявлявший эти
качества1, временами отвечал на нестерпимый гнет самодержавия и
местных самодуров жестоким и беспощадным бунтом, что в свою очередь вызывало
ответные жестокости властей. Может быть, именно поэтому в XIX в. в общественной мысли определилась
победа идеи революционаризма (насильственной ломки сложившегося веками
общественного и политического строя) над идеями мира, христианского
долготерпения и всепрощения.
Однако именно в XIX в. в России выступает "апостол ненасилия" Лев
Толстой и начинают действовать миротворческие секты — как иностранного
происхождения (баптисты, меннониты, адвентисты Седьмого дня), так и русские
(духоборы). Тогда же появляются и первые пацифистские общества, которые
разворачивают свою деятельность в начале XX века.
Первая мировая война с ее чудовищными жертвами,
последовавшие за ней революция и гражданская война в России вызывают к жизни
активизацию миролюбивых сил — толстовцев, пацифистских сект и таких одиноких
гигантов миротворчества в мысли, слове и действии, как Максимилиан Волошин. К
тридцатым годам, однако, с установлением и упрочением сталинского
тоталитаризма, эти движения подавляются, запрещаются, сходят на нет или
подвергаются репрессиям. Формирование и утверждение тоталитаризма как
государственной системы в Советской России сопровождалось ярко выраженной
милитаризацией всех областей общественной жизни и созданием могущественной
репрессивной машины.
1 Н. Я. Данилевский определял
русский характер как "чуждый насильственности, исполненный мягкости,
покорности, почтительности", имеющий "наибольшую соответственность
христианским идеалам" (Данилевский Н. Я. Россия и Европа: взгляд на
культурные и политические отношения славянского мира к германо-романскому.
Спб.,1889. С. 526). Подобные же характеристики можно встретить в произведениях
Ф. Достоевского, Л. Толстого и других русских писателей.
349
Особенностью миротворческих идей и движений в России в
период тоталитаризма становится их тесная сращенность с борьбой против
всемогущества государства и коммунистической идеологии, за политические
свободы, в том числе за открытость общества по отношению к Западному миру.
Протест против насилия, таким образом, был обращен прежде всего против
внутреннего, государственного насилия. Антимилитаристские движения снизу были
направлены в основном против государственного тоталитаризма, милитаризма и
военно-промышленного комплекса, против агрессивной официальной идеологии.
Другой особенностью было существование в советской России двух отдельных одно
от другого миротворческих движений — с одной стороны, официального, служившего
прикрытием тоталитарному государству с его милитаризмом и претензиями на
"мировую революцию", и другого, отнюдь не массового, но смелого и
сознательного независимого движения мира, объединявшего единицы и горстки
людей, которые отважно рисковали своей жизнью и свободой. Это второе движение,
несмотря на свою малочисленность и постоянные репрессии со стороны
государственного аппарата, сыграло свою роль в окончании "холодной
войны" и в крахе пропитанной духом насилия коммунистической идеологии.
Это не значит, что идеям мира и ненасилия удалось победить в
современной России. Ее сегодняшний день по-прежнему отмечен вооруженными
межнациональными конфликтами, преступностью, принимающей все более жестокие
формы, терроризмом, бытовым ожесточением. Однако в общественном сознании все
более просматривается осознанное стремление к мирной, ненасильственной
альтернативе. В связи с этим особенно важным аспектом восстановления
гуманистического облика российской цивилизации и включения ее в европейскую и
мировую семью народов представляется возрождение мирной и ненасильственной
альтернативы, всегда присутствовавшей в сознании народа и лучших его
представителей. Духовный потенциал России, возрождающийся ныне мало
помалу, вековые традиции, столь определенно зовущие к победе идеалов истины и
добра, живые примеры людей прошлых и нынешних поколений, воплотивших в своей
жизни идеи примирения с Богом, миром и ближними, — все это позволяет надеяться
на то, что Россия скажет еще свое слово мира — миру и самой себе.
350
SUMMARY
Y. N. Shchapov, Russia. Peace Ideas in Russian Chronicles of XI-XIII Centuries
The chapter deals with the ways of
political conflict resolution in XI-XIII Centuries Russia and with the ideas of
peace in political thinking of that period.
In the first part the author gives
analysis of the word "peace" ("мир") and its understanding in Russian Chronicles.
"Мир" meant peace after wars with other countries; it was often
confirmed by peace treaties. "Мир" meant also "quiet times" and
"silence" within Russia, i. e. peace between princes; and also
"love" — Christian peace among people.
The second part speaks about
meditations on peace in the middle XII century, the time of bitter hostility
and wars between princes of different partstof Russia — wars for lands and
power. At this time military glory was seen as a virtue of a prince, and
attempt to achieve peace treaty as a manifestation of weekness. But there
existed also another idea: both alternative ways of conflict resolution were
seen as equal. As an example we can see a conflict between prince Izyaslav of
Kiev and prince Yury Dolgorukiy and also conflicts with polovtsy. Constant
menace of invasion from the Southern tribes of nomads made Russian princes to
seek for peace among themthelves. For this purpose they had a special Congress
of Princes in Loubech in 1097. However the Congress didn't give any positive
results.
The author notes at the end, that
inspite of being a Christian country there were almost no mentioning of
Christian values in Russian Chronicles. Probably problems of war and peace were
seen as pure political and because of that as secular ones. However when
authors of Chronicles tried to explain the essence of the word
"peace" and reasons of wars they used Christian system of values and
Christian morality. Wars were described as signs of God's wrath for people's
sins. Images and verses from Psalms, Epistles and other Biblical texts speaking
on problems of war and peace were widely used in Russian literature of that
period.
N. P. Malakhova, Russia. Peace Ideas in Russian
Hagiography
As sources of this chapter
N.P.Malakhova chose hagiographic literature — life stories of Russian Saints
from XI till XIX centuries. These sources, as famous Russian relligious
philosopher G.Fedotov says, are closely connected with religious experience and
the very theme of "holy Russia's" history. Official historiography
always neglected these sources as "not serious enough". Meanwhile
"Saint's stories" were mostly popular as home reading on all levels
of Russian society for centuries and made significant influence on people's
mentality.
One of the mostly noticeable
features of Russian saints was "peaceful mind", closely connected
with the spirit of Christian doctrine (see Mt. 5:9, In. 14:27,17:33). For them
the first step to peace within
351
was rejection of wealth and glory of
this world. The best example are two brothers-princes Boris and Gleb, who were
killed by Sviatopolk in 1015 in intestine war. They voluntarily refused the
strife with Sviatopolk and preferred to be killed not to oppose evil by force
according to Gospel. After being killed the brothers won victory over death and
became to be mostly popular Russian Saints. Other Saints were going the same
path, among them prince Mstislav, prince Roman Smolensky, who refused to resist
evil and to take vengeance on his enemy.
Other examples of peaceful mind —
life stories of Russian monks, hermits and ascetics who helped people of all
social groups to keep in mind the ideal of peace, forgiveness and love. Such
were Anthony and Pheodosy Pechersky. At the end of XIV century another famous
Russian Saint Sergius Radonezhsky starts his feat (подвиг); until now he is seen at as a model of peace,
humility and love both to people, animals and the whole creation. Sergius was
very active also in the political life of Russia — he tried constantly to make
peace between quarreling princes. He travelled a lot from one land to another
one persuading princes to live in peace and love with each other. His
contemporary Cyril Beelozersky went the same way.
The mostly recent example of
peaceful mind was extremely popular Saint of XVIII-XIX centuries Seraphim
Sarovsky. His teaching was expressed in a few very significant words. "My
darling", he used to say, "court peaceful mind, and thousands will be
saved around you".
N. P. Malakhova gives many other
examples which show that ideal of peace — both within heart and in political
life existed in Russian culture and in Russian history from pre-mongol times
until now; it goes from the Christian tradition of Russian Orthodox church.
A. P. Yagodovsky, Russia. Ideal of Peace in Russian
Orthodox Liturgical Practice
There is a certain stereotype in
world view on Russian history. According to this stereotype Russian history is
overwhelmed by wars, riots and various kinds of violence. But there always
existed other traditions and ideals in the depth of people's mind, tradition,
which made many writers, thinkers and philosophers to speak about peculiar
patience, humility, peacefulness of Russian mind. Those ideals were developed
particularly by liturgical practice of Russian Orthodox Church from the very
beginning of its coming into being in XI Century.
The chapter by A. Yagodovsky
considers Orthodox Church service from the point of view of peace ideal it
contained. Such approach has special interest for historians of mentality
because the Church service remained immutable for centuries; it was the main
source of moral and spiritual knowledge and inspiration for millions of people
and also the main source of education. We see from the chapter that peace ideal
is literally running through the whole Russian Orthodox service. It starts with
words "Let us pray God in peace" and finishes by "Let us go out
in peace". A very important element of this service is the necessity of
reconsiliation of all the people present and first of all of the priest himself
with each other, with God, with everybody, because otherwise the prayer will
not be efficient (see Mt. 5:23-24).
352
The main form of prayer (in greek
called ektenia) which is repeated variably many times during the
Liturgy, The Evening service and on other occasions, contains as a first
request payer about peace in Heavens and peace on the Earth. The necessary
element of ektenia is a prayer on reconsiliation and well-being of all
the Christian Churches. And last — but not least — the prayer on peace within:
"deliver us from all the wrath..."
Thus during the service, A.Yagodovsky
writes, a person in the Church "becomes utterly absorbed in atmosphere of
complete peace, love, mutual understanding and wholeness with God and with each
other". An important element of the prayer is a request about peaceful
life and peaceful death, without hostility and anger. And beyond that there is
constant idea of eternal peace and future life in God.
The other key word of Russian
Orthodox service — "love". It is repeated many times in very sacred
moments of transubstantiation of bread and wine in body and blood of Christ.
The very idea of eukharist sacrifice, as Comments to Liturgy say, is "a
fruit of reconsiliation between people and God through Christ the
Saviour".
This ideal of peace was not limited
only by "church feelings". The author shows how it was put into
practice by many Russian monks, priests, saints and ordinary people.
L. N. Pushkaryov,
Russia. Meditations on Peace in Russian Folklore and in Social Thought of
XVII-XVIII Centuries.
The ideal of peace as a way to
happyness and well-being was always present in Russian proverbs, folk songs,
tales and ballads. This theme however never attracted historians. They studied
attitude of Russian people to war and military heroism, but neglected the ideas
of peacemaking, friendliness, forgiveness.
L. N. Pushkaryov gives many examples
of longing for peace which was mirrored in Russian folklore. War was judged in
people's mind as-calamity and disaster. "Started the war — finish
it", the folk wisdom says.
The ideas of peace-making were
specifically developed in Russian publicisstics of XVII Century. Simeon
Polotsky, a Church preacher and a teacher of Tsar's children wrote a few
tracts, sermons and poems discussing problems of war and peace. He tried to
explain the reasons of wars and was seeking them in the field of morality.
Greed and lust, he wrote, were the main reasons of wars. He didn't think
however that God forbids all kinds of wars and developed idea of
"righteous", defensive war. Such war may be a good way to lasting
peace.
L. N. Pushkaryov discerns ideas of
peace as the supreme good, developed by great Russian scholar M. Lomonosov, and
also by main activists of Russian Enlightenment — professor of law S.
Desnitsky, philosopher Y. P. Kozelsky, writer A. N. Radishchev, professor V. F.
Malinovsky, who also developed a project of "everlasting peace"
between states. All those authors condemned war and praised' international
peace; but they were not pacifists in the strict sence of the word. They
agreed, that there could be a "righteous", defensive war. These ideas
reflected deep expectations and hopes of masses of Russian people.
353
E. Rudnitskaya,
Russia. Peace Ideas in Russian social thought of XIX Century
The essay deals with the major
tendencies of peace ideas in Russian social thought of the 19th Century. The
characteristic feature of peace idea in Russia was its close dependence on
ideology of its authors. It appeared first in the mainstream of the
Enlightenment which started its establishment in Russia at the second half of
18th Century and was extremely receptive to its socio-political
interpretation; the main role in this aspect played the concept of peace
created by J.-J. Rousseau. Dividing from this concept two trends develop: one
tends to enlightenment and reforms (Kozel'sky, Desnitsky, Malinovsky, Pushkin),
the other one connects the problem of peace-making with revolutionary
re-building of the whole society — such was an approach to the problem of peace
among the Decembrists.
After the events of 25th of December
1825 we can see a very clear idea of harmony between the Government and the
society on the base of uniting people productive activity and enlightenment.
The problem of peace was worked out within the istoriosophical doctrine of
Slavophils and expressed by A. S. Khomyakov. He included it in the context of
main ideas which for him were: religion, Christianity and spiritual mission of
Russia in relation to other European nations.
The Crimean war and entrance of
radicalism at the Scene of sociopolitical life marked a watershed in the
development of the idea of war and peace: it starts to be subordinated to the
interests of revolution. The problem of war is discussed in Hertzen's works, it
receives the monosemantic evaluation in Bakunin's tracts and step by step
starts to be treated as an important element, which helps to the revolution and
because of that is desirable and fruitful. These ideas became to be propagated
in 1870s by the newspapers of Russian blanquists "Nabat" (which means
alarm bell); its editor was P'otr Tkachev.
Peace doctrine in Russia, which was
at the beginning an expression of humanistic striving then came in the radical
ideology to its own self-denial: the destroying force of war became to be a
mean of terroristic way to solve the problem of organization of human society.
Pier Cesare Bori, Italy. Development
of the Idea of Non-violence: "Non-resistance" of Leo Tolstoy
In this research Professor Bori
showes how Christian belief came to Leo Tolstoy's mind and changed his views.
It happened whenTolstoy was in his early fifties, and all what as he previously
thought was good became to be evil and vise versa because as he wrote he
accepted and realized Christ's teaching differently than he did it previously.
This discovery of Christian doctrine
lead Tolstoy to the idea of non-resistance to evil by evil (see Mt. 5:39). For
Tolstoy this idea was a central point of the Sermon on the Mount which was, as
he thought, the main doctrine of the Gospels. Tolstoy didn't want academic
explanation of scholarly divinity any more: he came to a childish belief which
became to be a core of his own teaching. In his works "Confession"
(1879), "What I believe in" (1884), "A brief version of
Gospels", "God's Kingdom is within you" (1890-1893) he expounded
the theme of non-resistance to evil by violence. Since the last tract the
354
question of peace became to be
central in his teaching as well as the question of non-understanding and
distortion of the essence of Christianity by historical churches and the
contemporary world. Tolstoy gave a historical survey of the idea of peace — he
mentions "Fathers of the Church" Origen, Tertullian and others, the
activists of Reformation, especially one of Bohemian Brethren Piotr
Khelchitsky, Mennonites, Quakers and radical North-American Christians (A. Ballow,
L. Harrison).
At the end of this chapter Professor
Bori makes a few observations about Tolstoy's perusal of the Sermon on the
Mount. First, Tolstoy agreed that there was connection between it and some
texts of the Old Testament like Isaiah 42.1-4. Secondly, Jesus demanded
"more complete righteousness" than righteousness of Scribes and
Pharisees. Besides that Tolstoy's concept is a rationalistic one, that's why it
became to be a foundation for contemporary non-religious theories of non-violence.
K. N. Lomunov,
Russia. Apostle of non-violence
This chapter continues the theme of
non-violence in Leo Tolstoy's writings. The author mentions that Tolstoy hated
violence for all his life, from his childhood. In 1857 he witnessed an
execution of a man in Paris and this murder made deep impression on him. At the
beginning of 60s he started to write a philosophical article on violence where
he argued that violence is opposite to ideas of common justice, freedom and
equality. The eternal purpose of humankind, he wrote, is movement to higher
justice and like-mindedness which excludes violence.
Professor K.N.Lomunov gives alalysis
of a few later tracts by Tolstoy — mostly "God's Kingdom is within
you" (1890-1883) and "Law of Violence and Law of Love" (1908). Tolstoy
was writing the first tract during the famine in Russia. Simultaneously he was
writing social tracts "On Famine", "Terrible Question" and
others. One idea united all these writings, philosophical as well as social,
the idea that this world is founded not on law, but on violence. This idea was
expressed by Tolstoy almost ten years earlier in the tract "What I believe
in". He stated that the main mistake of historical Churches was that they
didn't recognize the commandment of non-resistance to evil by violence. Only
Mennonites, Quakers and some individuals like Piotr Khelchitsky, W. L. Harrison
and A. Ballow propagated and practiced non-violence.
Tolstoy answered his numerous
critics, both in Russia and abroad, who believed that Christ's teaching on non-violence
became to be obsolete and naive in "our industrial age". He wrote of
historical necessity and inevitability of not only theoretical study but
practical embodyment of the law of non-violence in social life. In the last
chapters of "God's Kingdom is within you" Tolstoy wrote about future
military and revolutionary conflicts, which were logical results of ideology of
violence. He believed however that time would come when humankind reject
violence and come to new forms of life.
355
Peter Brock, Canada.
Some Russian pacifist sectarians and military service, 1874-1914
The two major pacifist sects in
Imperial Russia were the German-speaking Mennonites and the Doukhobors. This
essay deals briefly with some of the other sects whose members refused to bear
arms after the introduction of universal military service in 1874. Lev Tolstoy
warmly supported conscientious objection which, from the 1880s onwards, he
considered to be the right stand for a Christian to take when faced with
conscription into the army. Though most Tolstoyans in this period, for various
reasons, were exempt from military service, several young Tolstoyans served
prison sentences as conscientious objectors. Although by this date few Molokans
rejected war unconditionally, some still did, especially among the group known
as Skakunv. Smaller sects like the Malevantsy bore a more consistent witness
against war. On the other hand, the Baptists and the closely related
Evangelical Christians produced few conscientious objectors before 1914, even
though after the Revolution these two denominations declared their adherence to
absolute pacifism until forced by the Communist regime to abandon this
position. Little information is available about Seventh-day Adventists; they
usually sought service in the army medical corps when conscripted. In fact,
apart from Mennonites and Doukhobors, we do not at present have a clear picture
of sectarian war resistance between 1874 and 1914.
S. Inikova.
History of pacifist movement in Doukhobor sect, XVIII-XX Centuries.
Doukhobor sect appeared in Russia in
XVIII Century. The central point of their teaching was religious doctrine on a
man as a temple of God, of Saint Trinity. This point lead them necessarily to
pacifism; they beleived that to kill a man means to encroach upon God Himself.
They rejected Russian Orthodox Church and even didn't accept that they were
Russians. They agreed to pay taxes to Tsar's government but didn't accept that
they must defend the state from so called enemies. They often refused to go to
the military service and agreed only to defend themselves but not to attack.
At the beginning of XIX Century Tsar
Alexander I released Doukhobors from prisons and exile and allowed them to live
together in Tauria and to have religious freedom. In 1841-45 they were moved to
remote parts of Trans-Caucasian provinces. Local tribes of tartars and turks
attacked their villages constantly, aand Doukhobors had to defend themthelves
by weapon. During Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78 they helped Russian Army by peaceful
means: gave horses and conveyances, arrainged hospitals in their villages.
In 1895 most radical part of Doukhobors — so called
"postniki" ("fasters") with Piotr Verigin as their leader
burned all their weapon and refused flatly to go to military service. As a
result they were persecuted by the government and had to emigrate to Canada.
Leo Tolstoy whose ideas were very close to Doukhobors' helped them financially
and morally. From this time Doukhobors-"postniki" started to be
complete pacifists: they declared principle of non-violence, refusing even to
defend themselves, and rejected to support any kind
356
of state violence. The other part of Doukhobor movement which
stayed in Russia was less consistent in their views; they took part in war with
Japan in 1905-07 and in the World War I. During the first years of Soviet
regime they were exempted from military service accordding to the Decree of
1919, but later were persecuted and made to do militay service. In the
totalitarian state founded on violence the open and consistent pacifism was
impossible.
K. Tarasoff,
Canada. Canadian Doukhobors as peacemakers
This chapter represents a survey of Canadian Doukhobor history
since their migration from Russia to Canada at the end of 19th — beginning of
20th Century until nowadays. Their philosophy and way of life was based on the
spirit of God in every person, and because of that beleif Doukhobors regard it
as wrong to kill other human beings, even in war; hence springs the pacifism
that is the most durable and widespread of Doukhobor attitudes.
With their coming to Canada in 1899,
the Russian Doukhobors continued to live their phiposophy, with their concept
of inner peace. Their communal pattern (stemming from the Russian mir system)
was the way of universal brotherhood and love. They worked hard, adapted to the
new situation of language, place and laws. They built 61 village communes,
cultivated the soil and enriched the wider community with their pacifist way of
life.
During the World War II many
Doukhobors became to be conscientious objectors even after 1943, when the
federal Government launched its compulsory military service programme.
Alternative service camps were set up, but many Doukhobors were put into jails
for refusing to go to the military. Many Doukhobors in different parys of
Canada and the USA took an absolute stand against the institution of militarism
and war.
During the Cold War period and
beyond, Doukhobors continued a variety of peace-making and bridge-building
activities and otherwise maintained a non-political friendship stance as
citizen diplomats. In doing this, they increased their numbers by cooperating
with others of kindred spirits such as the Mennonites and Quakers, but also
with Molokans and members of various peace organizations. They organized peace
marches and manifestations in 1964, 1965, 1983, 1984 etc. The year 1995 saw
many successful Centennial events take place which brought together all
Doukhobor factions from across Canada with participation by Russian and USA
Doukhobors. In January 1996, the Canadian Museum of Civilization mounted a
national Exhibition commemorating the 1895 Burning of Firearms event in Tsarist
Russia and the migration of Doukhobors to Canada.
L.
Klippenstein, USA. Conscientious objection in the Mennonite Communities of
Tsarist Russia
Mennonites came to New Russia late
in the 18th century under a colonization agreement which promised military
service exemption to them as it did to other foreign colonists of the time. It
became clear quite early though that actual war-time condtions would raise
other
357
questions about the extent and
meaning of war-time involvements of the Mennonites in their new homeland.
The Great Reforms of Alexander II
could have meant the end of exemptions for Mennonites in Russia. They
discovered though that negotiations were possible on this point although the
initial modifications of the new military law proposed by the government did
not meet the alternative service conditions set by the Mennonites themselves.
The threat of massive Mennonite emigration persuaded the government to go
beyond their first proposals. It agreed to set up forestry service camps
providing non-combatant forms of work not under military jurisdiction. This
arrangement did not change in essence until the Bolshevik Revolution ushered in
a new order for the entire country.
Other forms of service, particularly
hospital-related work, became a preferred type of alternative service for a
large number of Mennonite men during the Russo-Japanese War and WWI. By then
Mennonites had begun to experience severe financial pressures in the forestry
camp program, while many men in the camps sensed a loss of meaning for the work
they were doing there.
The Soviet takeover changed the
situation from the very beginning. All aspects of an exemption program which,
in fact, could continue for several decades, were taken over by the new regime.
The discussion of those developments is however beyond the scope of this essay.
Suffice it to say that all remnants of exemption privileges in the Soviet Union
essentially disappeared with the promulgation of the Stalin Constitution of
1936, and then vanished altogether by the time that WWII broke out in 1941.
The provisions established for
Mennonite military service exemptions from 1789 till 1941 demonstrated a
somewhat unique case of state accomodation to minority concerns of conscience
and religious freedom in tsarist Russia and the early decades of Soviet rule.
One could imagine that such accomodation could happen again should it be called
for by the citizens of Russia, or the areas of the "near abroad"
which were in the Soviet Union before its demise.
D. Heinz, Austria. Seven-day Adventists and
Noncombatancy in the Russian Empire
Adventist church-work in Russia
began in 1884 as a revivalistic lay missionary movement among the German
settlements in the Crimea, Volga region and the Caucasus. German colonists,
mainly those with Mennonite, Lutheran or Baptist backgrounds, became acquainted
with Adventism through books, tracts and magazines printed in the german
language and sent to them by relatives and friends, who earlier had emigrated
from Russia to North America. The early Russian Adventists came from the lower
peasant and artisan classes. Toward the end of the 1890s and at the turn of the
Century Adventists slowly gained a foothold in large cities such as Riga and
St. Petersburgh.
Seventh-day Adventists in America
first officially declared themselves noncombatants on August 2, 1864, after the
Government had passed a draft law with special provisions for conscientious
358
objectors. The Adventist Church did
not take the position of total conscientious objection against any form of
military service as revealed in strict pacifism. The principle was to cooperate
with the military authorities until commands conflict with one's own conscience
and with the Law of God.
The Adventist opposition to take an
active combatant role during time of war was in no European country greater
than in Russia. According to Loebsack, the majority of the approximately 500
Russian Adventist draftees attempted — more or less successfully — to obtain
positions in medical units or some other noncombatant branch of the army. In
addition, he points out, that between 1914 and 1916 around 70 of these
Adventist draftees opposed the bearing of arms and the performance of any form
of military service. This indicates that 14% of the mainly noncombatant
oriented Adventist draftees in Russia adopted a strict pacifist stand. We can
further ascertain that from the 70 Adventist conscientious objectors 37 were
sentenced to imprisonment or exile.
The question remains why Russian
Adventists upheld the principle of noncombatancy so vigorously. Research has
shown that the Adventist church in Russia obviously provided the highest number
of conscientious objectors among European Adventism during that time. In
addition to the fact that many early Adventists in Russia were of German
origin, we must not disregard their former religious affiliations. Many of the
early Russian Adventist converts came from Mennonite-Baptist circles where a
strong anti-military attitude prevailed. This pacifist spirit somewhat present
in Russian Adventism was not cultivated among Adventist members outside of
Russia.
R. Ilukhina, D. Sdvizhkov, Russia.
Russian Pacifism and Western Peace-making at Early XX Century (beginnings and
activity of Russian Peace Societies)
Russian liberal pacifism as a part
of Western peacemaking started its struggle for replacement of regime of war
and violence by law and order in international relations at the beginning of XX
Century. Organizing of pacifist movement was connected with growth of
liberalism and democracy. Main Russian societies of peace were created in 1909
in Moscow and Peterburgh.
Their activity included propagation
of general peace, working out concepts of international law, international
arbitration and international security system. This activity lead to growth of
many-sided connections and participation of Russian pacifists in European
peace-making process. During military conflicts Russian pacifists tried to put
their ideas into practice calling politicians and diplomats to arbitration and
mediation, but they had no success. On the eve of World War I pacifists
struggled against chauvinism and militarism but they still were a non-influential
and alien movement in social life. The reasons were inrooted in non-adequacy of
pacifism to Russian political culture, including lack of development of
democratic institutions. The law on military service, militarism and prevailing
of revolutionarist ideas reflected the fate of liberalism in general. But
historical rile of Russian pacifism was determined not so much by specific
influence as
359
by
long-lasting humanistic ideals. Ideas of arbitration, disarmament, creation of international peace organizations were
picked up by politicians and step by
step became to be first elements and (to the end of XX Century) key tendencies of international life.
P. van den
Dungen, Great Britain. I. Bliokh and Y. Novikov — Russian peacemakers at the
turn of the Century
The author examines activity of two
distinguished Russian peacemakers Ivan Bliokh (1836-1902) and Yakov Novikow
(1849-1912). Their writings dealing with problems of war and peace were well
known and respected in Western world. Their publications were printed in many
languages and now the reprint of some of their scholarly works in the USA can be seen as confirmation of the
high regard in which both characters continue to be held in the West. At the
same time growing number of analytical and interpretative studies which focus
on either or both of these peace thinkers and activists have appeared in the
West. By contrast at home, in Russia, they are almost not remembered.
A successful entrepreneur in the
construction and direction of railways and also a veritable captain of industry
in Polish (Poland at that time was a part of Russia) economic life, I. Bliokh
published his 6-volume book "The War of the Future in its Technical,
Economic and Political Relations" in 1898. He predicted the brutal and
global nature of a future war between the great powers, the nature of new
weaponry (increase of fire-power, greater accuracy, larger range) and warned
the rulers of Europe, that a great war between them would drag them and their
societies into the abyss. The rest of his life he propagated his ideals widely,
and his efforts exercised an important influence on international life,
particularly on Tsar Nicolas II's call, in August 1898, for an international
peace conference.
Y.Novikov started his own investigations
of origins and evolution of warfare. They culminated in the publication in 1893
of a massive, two-volume work "Les Luttes entre Societes Humaines et Leurs
Phases Successives". After that he published 16 more in French and in
English as well as numerous articles in scholarly journals. He sought to
demonstrate that, from an historical and evolutionary perspective, the nature
of struggle did not remain constant, but evolved, with the growth of
civilization, in the direction of less brutal and more complex forms. This
opened up the possibility — indeed, necessity — of the abolition of one of the
most violent and persistent manifestations of conflict: war. Influenced by
social Darvinism, Novikov recognized the importance and inevitability of
competition and struggle, but at the same time argued that "mutual
aid", altruism, and selfless behaviour were also part of human behaviour,
and that cooperation is possible. He thought that it was the task of an
enlightened elite "to lead their nations away from atavistic militarist
and chauvinist postures to a federation of European states".
In humanity's long and continuing struggle against war, the
efforts of I. Bliokh and Y. Novikov will always rank among the most notable and noble ones.
360
O. Shalimov,
Russia. Captured by the Fury of War (Antimilitary Protest by painter V. Vereshchagin)
Vassily Vereshchagin (1842-1904) was
a vamous painter whose name was well known not only in Russia but in wide
circles of liberal European intelligentsia. The main theme of his canvases was
war, its sufferings and its consequences. These canvases became to be a
significant fact in spiritual and intellectual life of Russia and Europe.
Vereshchagin himself took part in
Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878; he participated in military skirmishes, he
risked to be shot and he killed himself. Dr. O. Shalimov gives analysis of
Vereshchagin's journals, letters and articles and showes how his antimilitary
concept developed. Step by step the painter realized that his purpose should be
to express horrors of war, its brutality and antihuman essence. He beleived
that his paintings should be true, realistic, accurate in details; in this case
they would wake up peoples' moral feelings, stimulate adversion to war and
educate more humanistic and conscientious spectator. He thought that art may
play the role of the church in education of antimilitary society.
Differently from Leo Tolstoy
Vereshchagin thought that it's necessary to propagate antimilitary ideas not
among ordinary people but among persons in power, because peace and war
depended on their policy. But "persons in power" like Tsar Alexander
III or Prussian fieldmarshal Moltke were very much critical to paintings by
Vereshchagin and didn't want them to be shown to wide circles of public.
Vereshchagin" was connected
with some well known European pacifists like Bertha von Zuttner; he wrote for
the peace magazine, she edited. His paintings made influence on many European
and Russian peace activists. At the end of his life he wrote that he hated any
war and hoped that humankind would come to peaceful way of solving
international conflicts. The tendency was continued later by well known writers
like A.Barbus, E.M.Remark and E. Hamingway.
V. M. Khaytsman,
Russia. The Hague Peace Conference of 1899 and Ideas of Pacifism.
At the end of XIX and beginning of
XX century ideas of international safety and disarmament became to be discussed
widely among European statesmen and in the works of academic lawyers. L. Komarovsky,
M. Engelhardt, F. Martens, economist S. Zhitkov and some others paid great
attention to those problems in their works. V. Gessen and I. Blyokh became to
be worldly known propagandists of pacifism and disarmament. Their activity was
strengthened by creation of peace societies, however not numerous.
Problems of disarmament were
discussed also at interparliamentary conferences which passed some
international agreements, for example Geneve Convention of 1864 which
contributed to the creation of Red Cross. A Declaration forbidding using
explosive and incendiary bullets passed in St. Peterburgh in 1868 also
contributed in limitation of militarism. Russian Government became to be an
initiator of Brussels
361
Conference of 1874 which was devoted
to codification of laws and customs of ground war.
In August 1898 Russian Government
proposed to have an International Peace Conference. There was a bitter
diplomatic struggle around this invitation, and at last the Hague Conference of
Peace was called on 18 May 1899. 109 representatives of 26 states took part in
this Conference. The Conference rejected proposition to limit ground and fleet
armament and military budgets. After some discussions it approved only three
declarations about limitation of ground armaments.
The Convention on laws and customs
of ground war passed by the Conference was wery significant. Until now many
states adhere to main points of this Convention.
After passing some remarks,
corrections and reservations the Conference passed the project of Convention on
peaceful decision of international collisions which was proposed by Russian
Government. It was a complex of international arbitration, which provided for
creation of Constant Court of International Arbitration.
The Hague Conference of 1899 was as
a whole a kind of palliative which was able to suspend for a while
international military competition.
Antimilitary
Appeal by Tolstoyans (Publication by R. M. Ilukhina, Russia)
This Appeal was written by Sergey
Popov in October 1914. The author beleived that the time came to remind people
the Divine Law of non-violence and the way out of the evil which overcame
people. All people of the world, he wrote, were children of the same God and
all are brothers and sisters; so they shouldn't kill each other. True enemies
are within you — those are sins, temptations and superstitions.
The Appeal was signed by Tolstoyans
Vassily Bespalov and Leo Pulner and edited by V.V.Chertkov (the son of Leo
Tolstoy's secretary). After that 19 copies of it were put on walls in Town
Tula. Local authorities found out the the pacifists and imprisoned them. The
Moscow Military Court condemned 28 Tolstoyans to hard labour.
Tatiana Pavlova, Russia. "General Peace-Maker": War, Violence and Revolution in Life and Works
by M. Voloshin.
The chapter by Tatiana Pavlova deals
with one of the mostly famous and original authors of so called "Silver
Age" of Russian Culture (the first quarter of XXth century) Maximilian
Voloshin (1877-1932). He was a painter, a poet, an art critic, an original and
deep thinker. And he was a remarkable peace-maker for all his life.
There are three parts in the
chapter. I. Years of Pilgrimage. Even in his childhood Voloshin was so
peaceful that other children couldn't challenge him to hostility or fighting.
Being adult he developed his philosophy of peace which had its source in his
feeling of the wholeness of the world and unity of all creature including human
beings. He studied art, poetry, philosophy, religion, magic, occultism. Being a
witness of the first Russian Revolution (1905-1907) he was
362
horrified by its brutality and
predicted, with Dostoyevsky, future tragedy of Russian Revolution. In 1913 he
blamed Ilya Repin for brutality of his art, feeling that naturalistically
painted blood on his picture "Ivan the Terrible killing his son Ivan"
was a kind of violence against all the people who looked at this picture.
In section II. The War —
Voloshin's anti-military position is shown. From the very beginning of World
War II he wrote in his articles that the war was a crime against humanity, and
that he feeled that it was necessary not to defend one of the parts, but to
overcome the war itself. He expressed his deep sorrow about the war's victims
and protested against the conscription. When called to war himself he became to
be a conscientious objector. "I refuse to be a soldier,- he wrote to the
Minister of Defence,- as a europeen, as an artist, as a poet... I cannot take part in fratricidal and intestine war,
whatever reasons of it could be... For me taking part in this war would be a
crime". Second time he rejected to be a soldier in the Read Army when
Bolsheviks offered it to him. He realized antihuman and brutal character of
modern wars in which peaceful inhabitants suffer most of all and also realized
true reasons of wars — economical greed of industrial culture. In many of his
articles and poems he wrote about immoral ideology of war.
The third section — Revolution
and Civil War — shows the attitude of Voloshin to those tragic events. For
him like for Dostoyevsky the Revolution in Russia was a result of devils'
activity — devils who seized human minds. During the Civil War which was
extremely brutal in the Crimea where Voloshin lived, he felt that he shouldn't
support one of the sides — neither Reds nor Whites. He wrote: "When
brothers are killing each other it is necessary to be with their Mother
(Russia), not with one of them, and pray for them all". He didn't beleive
in Marxist theory of class struggle: marxism he called "kakangelium"
(bad news). He saw a mystical meaning in the Civil War and beleived that
peoples of Russia could come to a new harmony and play a very important role in
reconciliation of Eastern and Western worlds. Practically he used to hide and
save in his house anybody who needed his help, no matter who they were.
The whole life of Voloshin was an
example and a testimony of vitality of peace ideal and peace doctrine in
Russian history and Russian culture.
W. Sawatsky,
USA. Pacifist Protestants in Soviet Russia between the wars
This chapter gives an intellectual
and theological historical sketch of protestantism in Russia since the middle
of the of 19th Century. There were Lutherans, Reformed, Anabaptist Mennonites,
Methodists and Baptists living within the Russian Empire together with native
Molokany and Dukhobory, and especially Evangelical Christian Baptists, the most
significant Slavic Protestant indigenous movement sprang up in 1860s when
peasants began reading the Bible in the new modern Russian translation. At the
beginning of 20th Century Pentecostalism appeared and its later variant called
the Charismatic movement.
363
Because most Protestant groups
stressed a recovery of the primacy of Holy Scripture as authority, many also at
some point in their Biblical study recovered the pacifism of Jesus and of early
Christianity. The pacifist strain remained very near the surface, as long as
the commitment to the authority of Scripture remained strong.
Professor Sawatsky also demonstrates
conflicting interpretations and memory distortions of the pacifist history of
Russian Protestants. It serves a recovery of information for the evangelicals
themselves, not merely informing a larger readership who may not know the
varieties of the long pacifist tradition in Russia from Boris and Gleb to the
twentieth century.
The Author gives a survey of history
of Protestant pacifists in Russia between the wars, in particular history of
Mennonites, Evangelical Christians and Baptists; he also demonstrates the
tragic story of conscientious objection in Russia since 1918 until early 30s,
when there were still over 1000 conscientious objectors for religious reasons
in forced alternative service. A Decree of 7 December 1931 ordered such CO's to
serve for three years in labour camps and receiving only 20% of normal pay.
After eight years of increasingly
tough measures against pacifists, they were still a problem. However
conscientious objection to military service never became a mass movement during
the early decades of Soviet power, compared to the massive refusals to serve
reported since 1990. Soviet authorities considered pacifists a dangerous fifth
column, but the danger was more theoretical than real. It was when Soviet power
was still at its shakiest, that the provisions for exemption by reason of
religious conviction were most easily granted.
The Soviet esort to violence as the
only way to hasten society towards full communism prevented giving space to the
many sectarian groups who embodied a high moral work ethic and a commitment to
a love ethic. When some of these sectarian groups were able to resume their
religious activity after 1944, they had learned the lesson that subordination
to Soviet power was the only issue that mattered. The involvement of Soviet
evangelical Protestants in the Peace Fund, in foreign travel and speechmaking
on behalf of the Soviet Union's definition of peace, was intended to be the
public service for permitting resumption of religious practice. Yet this
service depended on such Soviet religious voices having orgaining credibility
with partners abroad and with their own supporters. Instead, the major
achievement till the early 1980s was widespread distrust of their leaders in
Moscow because of their peace activity, and distrust by partners abroad. Thus
for evangelical Protestants in the post-Soviet period, it will be critical to
recover the lost history, to sort out the true from the falsifications.
D. McFadden, USA. From Quaker service to Quaker
presence: Quakers in Soviet Russia, 1917-1927
The main theme of this chapter is
relief work of British and American Quakers in the Volga region during the
great famine of 1921-1923, as well as medical and agricultural relief work
during the restoration period in 1920s. The author examines also activity of a
364
Moscow Quaker Center which facilitated
discussions and contacts between Quakers and Russian Tolstoyans.
The author mentions that the World
War I accelerated Quaker relief efforts all over Europe. In Russia the Society
of Friends was involved in famine relief and hospital construction in the Volga
region, Vladivostok, Moscow, Petrograd, and in the Baltic region. The center of
Quaker relief work in Russia became to be Buzuluk, Samara region on the Volga.
At the time of Civil War and afterwards British and American Quakers operated
more than one thousand separate feeding stations throughout the Volga region,
and also ran tuberculosis sanitariums, agricultural schools, educational and
construction programs, children's homes and nurses' training centers.
The author examines also the
negotiation process between Quakers and Bolshevik authorities. As a result
Quaker service received authorization to distribute relief supplies from the
American Red Cross, the American Relief Administration, and the British Save
the Children Fund and had some other agreements. One of the mostly significant actions
was successful provision of up to 1000 horses from Siberia and Turkestan to be
lent "free of cost" to the peasants. This action was an example of
cooperation between foreign Quakers and Russian Tolstoyans (Ilya Tolstoy, a
grandson of Leo Tolstoy, took part in this action.
In the post-famine climate the
negotiations between Quakers and Soviet officials were concentrated on two
major areas: the reconstruction of the rural economy and the provision of
adequate rural medical services and training. Successive agreements negotiated
in 1923, 1924, 1925 and 1926. However from 1924 until 1927, despite the
generally cooperative spirit prevailing between Quaker International Service
and the Soviet government, Quaker projects gradually declined, largely due to the
inability of the American Friends Service Committee and British Friends to
raise sufficient funds to keep them going. Moscow Quaker Center staffed by
British Quaker Dorice White, would survive until 1931 providing a presence and
a space for international visitors, Tolstoyans, and all interested Russians to
gather, drink tea, and talk.
E. Goetel, Russia. United Council of Religious Communities and Groups as one of
Manifestations of Russian Religious Pacifism
It is a paradox that just after
revolutionary violence of 1917 and horrors of Civil War Russian religious
pacifism became to flourish for a short period. The reason was instability of
Soviet power as well as definitely anti-Bolshevik position of Russian Orthodox
Church. New authorities saw in sectaries of various denominations who were
persecuted during Tsarist regime their allies in the struggle against Church
Orthodoxy. Sectaries from their side welcomed religious freedom declared by the
Soviewt Government. Among those sectaries there were also Tolstoyans, the
mainstream of Russian pacifist movement.
Using archive materials, manuscripts
and early documents of Soviet authorities E.Goetel examines history of pacifist
activity of the United Council of Religious Cmmunities and Groups (UCRAG).
There were two periods of attitude of Soviet regime to religious
antimilitarists:
365
relative tolerance (1917 — middle of
20s) and persecution (middle of 20s — end of 30s). UCRCAG was organized by
Tolstoyans and some other sects in 1918 and developed its activity at the first
period. The purpose of it was defined as defend of religious freedom and right
not to go to the military service on religious reason. Representatives of many
denominations and religious groups were included to UCRCAG chosen by their
local organizations. There were Mennonites, Baptists, Evangelical Christians,
7-Day Adventists, Tolstoyans, later — Molokans, and some others.
Participation in creating the decree
on freedom from military service for conscientious objectors was the main
activity of UCRCAG. The decree passed on January 4, 1919. UCRCAG was appointed
to make expertize in cases of conscientious objection. Since than UCRCAG
started it human right activity. They sent representatives all over Russia to
collect information about conscientious objectors to send this information to
UCRCAG and to be experts on court procedures. Sometimes they succeeded to
prevent shootings up or to abolish illegal orders of local authorities.
In december 1920 another decree
passed by Soviet of People Commissars which limited UCRCAG's commissions.
Conscientious objectors were persecuted more and more until at the end of 1923
it was dismissed. However the movement of Russian sectarian pacifism existed
until the end of 30s propagating ideas of non-violence.
Ales'
Adamovich, Belorus. Pacifism of "Shestidesyatniki"
Democratic intelligencia — Russian
public figures, writers, painters, philosophers and social thinkers who were
very active politically and socially during first Russian "thaw" at
the end of 1950s — beginning 1960s were called "Shestidesyatniki"
(which means "men of the sixties"). Ales' Adamovich, a well known
Belorussian writer, who died from heart attack in 1995, was one of them. He
contributed a his chapter specially for this book.
"Shestidesyatniki", he
wrote were struggling against totalitarianism since the World War II. Almost
all of them were participants of the war and since then they hated war and
violence. "Perestroyka" and the downfall of communist Utopia
was partly the result of their activity.
Literature by
writers-"shestidesyatniki" (like V. Bykov, G. Baklanov, K. Vorobyov,
B. Okudzhava and others) was not pacifist in strict sence of the word but in
its spirit, in its pathos it was deeply antimilitary. Memoirs, letters,
interviews supplemented this antimilitary theme.
Other group of Soviet intelligencia
were nuclear physicists like academicians Kapitsa, Landau and Sakharov who
became to be active anti-militarists and anti-totalitarianists. They contrasted
to official "peace movement" their antimilitary and antitotalitarian
protest. They were convinced that if Soviet totalitarianism survives, the third
World War would be inevitable. It was because of their influence that president
Gorbachov started "Perestroyka" in 1985. It was because of their influence
that the coup of 1991 didn't succeed They succeeded to avoid violence on
barricades of 1991 and probably their main service was that the totalitarianism
in Russia was ruined without a nuclear war.
366
T. Telyukova,
Russia. "Trust" group in Moscow.
Independent peace movement arose in
the USSR in 1982. A manifestation of it was "Trust" group in Moscow
and other cities. There are almost no documents reached Western countries and
published about the movement in the provinces, that's why the author deals with
Moscow group. It was created June 4th 1982 by 11 persons, among them academics,
engineers, doctors and teachers. They declared their purpose as building trust
between East and West. It existed until 1989.
The beginning of 1980s was
characterized by worsening of. international relations after invasion of Soviet
military forces to Afganistan in 1979. Within the Soviet Union where Y.Andropov
came to power in 1982, the political persecution of dissidents became to be
more cruel. 200 people were arrested in 1981 for expression of views different
from official ones. In their first appeals and declarations the group declared
that mutual trust between East and West was the only mean to avoid nuclear war
and mutual obliteration. They called to reduction of armaments and to complete
elimination of nuclear armament reserve. In 1983 they called USA and USSR
governments to stop all the tests of nuclear armaments.
However "Trust" group
didn't critisize official Soviet program of disarmament and international peace
and stated that they are ready to collaborate with any Soviet peace
organizations. Their main activity was directed to organizing contacts between
citizens of different countries, exchange trips by schoolchildren, students,
academics, Soviet-American TV debates, joint experiments in space studies and
aid to countries of the third world. They called to organization of peace
marches and exchange by tourist groups.
From the very beginning KGB
prevented the group's activity and persecuted its participants. They were
arrested many times, called to KGB officials, some were imprisoned to
psychiatrical hospitals.
Since President Gorbachev came to
power the situattion changed. Step by step the group obtained more and more
freedom in its activity. In 1991 the number of members kept in prison was
already only 30. The "Trust" group became to be more active; the
magazine "День за днем" ("Day after Day") appeared, new
Declaration was confirmed. The main purpose of the members of the group was now
struggle for democracy and human rights in Russia, defence of conscientious
objectors against persecution, work with prisoners. After 1989 the
"Trust" group became to be just a part of mainstream of democratic
movement in Russia.
R. Ilukhina and
T.Pavlova, Russia. Totalitarianism and Free Thinking: the Role of Independent Peace and Pacifist ideas
in the USSR in the Ending of the
"Cold War"
Clandestine peace making in the post
war period did not simply put forward the idea of "cold war"
resistance, but worked to wreck the system of political violence because this
system was closely allied with
367
militarism and with the threat to
the whole world. "Cold war" resistance had its beginning in Stalin
prisons and concentration camps. A scholar and philosopher D.Andreev in his
book "Roza mira" ("Rose of peaceful world") called to put
an end to wars and absolute tyranny and to establish a "World Federation
of States" (2). Probably D.Andreev was not alone in his opposition to the
regime of violence and "cold war", but their names are not known.
Meanwhile the 50s witnessed the
establishment of the authorized Soviet Peace Committee. Dividing all the people
into "ours" and "aliens" it fuelled, in practice, the
"cold war" and inspired the ideological confrontation. The principle
"We all are for peace" served for a very long period as a coyer for
its members — devote communists and KGB officers — to disguise the
militarisation of the society, arms race, adventurous Soviet foreign policy,
and human rights violations as well as reprisals against pacifists.
It took years of sufferings and
searches before an alternative antimilitary movement could come in the open.
This development has passed three stages: 1. Individual protests against the
"cold war" and conceptual strategy development of the 60s and 70s; 2.
Clandestine antimilitary groups and collective resistance to state violence in
the first half of the 80s; 3. The voluntary peace movement against the
totalitarian regime and "cold war" in Gorbachev's time of; "perestroyka"
and the second half of the 80s. Academician Sakharov was the first to highlight
the correlations between nuclear war prevention, socio-economic reforms,
restoration of human rights and, on this base, drawing together the socialist
and capitalist systems. Another important landmark in the "cold war"
resistance was the year of 1968 when some intelligentsia groups launched
protests against Soviet military intervention to Czechoslovakia. There existed
also a phenomenon of so called "inner emigration", which at those
time was a passive, but a real movement. Several components were mixed in this
protest: denial of the totalitarian regime, realizing that human rights are of
indisputable moral value, and antimilitarism. In 1979 Afgan war gave a strong
impulse to antimilitarism. Peace advocates came to understand that only the
fall of the communist regime could put an end to the "cold war".
A.Sakharov was the main speaker against the Afgan war. The "Trust"
group started its own antimilitary and human rights movement. The movement of
young "hippies" made their contribution to antimilitary movement,
refusing to go to the military service.
These movements gave way to the
third stage of peace movement in Russia. It was the period of the middle 80s
when M. Gorbachev, the future USSR President, called for a world free of
violence and nuclear weapons based on the priority of human values over class
interests. Many grass-roots antimilitary groups and movements appeared at that
period. The mostly strong and successive was "Soldiers' Mothers'"
movement against violence and anauthorized relations in the military. Early 90s
witnessed the creation of Tolstoyan groups and pacifist unions such as Russian
Peace Society, Violence free World, Ethics of non-violence, Omega, Campaign
against violence and others. These groups conditioned the end of the "cold
war" on the new non-violent human mentality, "moral
disarmament", peace education.
368
СПИСОК АВТОРОВ — LIST OF AUTHORS
[Адамович Алесь]
— известный белорусский писатель и публицист
Гетель
Елена Ивановна — историк, автор трудов по антимилитаристским движениям
Илюхина
Рузанна Михайловна — доктор исторических наук, до 1997 г. ведущий научный
сотрудник Института Всеобщей истории Российской Академии Наук
Иникова
Светлана Александровна — кандидат исторических наук, старший научный сотрудник
Института Этнологии и Антропологии Российской Академии Наук
Ломунов
Константин Николаевич — заслуженный деятель науки РФ, доктор филологических
наук, профессор, главный научный сотрудник Института Мировой литературы им. A. M. Горького Российской Академии
Наук
Малахова
Нина Павловна — историк, автор статей, исследователь истории русского
православия
Павлова
Татьяна Александровна — доктор исторических наук, ведущий научный сотрудник
Института Всеобщей истории Российской Академии Наук, член Союза писателей
Москвы
Пушкарев
Лев Никитович — доктор исторических наук, ведущий научный сотрудник-консультант
Института Российской истории Российской Академии Наук
Рудницкая
Евгения Львовна — доктор исторических наук, ведущий научный сотрудник Института
Российской истории Российской Академии Наук
Сдвижков
Денис Анатольевич — кандидат исторических наук, научный сотрудник Института
Всеобщей истории Российской Академии Наук
Телюкова
Татьяна Ивановна — кандидат исторических наук, научный сотрудник Института
Всеобщей истории Российской Академии Наук
Хайцман
Виктор Моисеевич — доктор исторических наук
Шалимов
Олег Александрович — кандидат исторических наук, научный сотрудник Института
Всеобщей истории Российской Академии Наук
Щапов Ярослав Николаевич — член-корреспондент
Российской Академии Наук, доктор исторических наук, профессор, главный научный
сотрудник, руководитель Центра истории религии и церкви Института Российской
истории Российской Академии Наук
Ягодовский Александр Платонович
— автор статей по истории русского православия; переводчик
369
Bori Pier Cesare — Professore, Universita di Bologna,
Facolta di scienze politiche (Italia)
Brock Peter — Professor Emiretus of History, University of
Toronto (Canada)
Dungen Peter van den — Professor, Department of Peace
Studies, University of Bradford (Great Britain)
Heinz Daniel — Dr., Lecturer in Church History Seminar
Bogenhofen (Austria), Theol. Hochschule Friedensau (Germany)
Klippenstein Lawrence — Dr., Archivist of Mennonite Heritage Centre
(Canada, Winnipeg)
McFadden David W. — Associate Professor of History, Fairfield
University (USA)
Sawatsky Walter — Associate Professor, Mennonite Biblical Seminary (USA)
Tarasoff J. Koozma — journalist, writer, historian of Doukhobor movement (Canada)
370
ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ
Предисловие..................................................................................
5
Введение (П.
Брок, Канада)...........................................................
7
Глава I. Истоки................................................................................ 9
— Идеи мира в русском
летописании XI-XIII веков (Я. Н. Щапов, Россия)...........................................................................................
11
— Идеи мира в русской
агиографической литературе (Н. П. Малахова, Россия).......................................................................
23
— Идеал мира в
литургической практике Русской Православной церкви (А. П. Ягодовский, Россия)............................................
42
Глава II. Эволюция идей мира
в XVII-XIX вв.......................... 55
— Думы о мире в
русском фольклоре и в общественной мысли XVII-XVIII вв. (Л. Н. Пушкарев, Россия)................................... 57
— Идея мира в русской
общественной мысли XIX
века (Е. Л. Рудницкая, Россия)......................................................................
72
— Развитие идеи
ненасилия: "непротивление" у Льва Толстого (П. Ч. Бори, Италия)............................................................................
88
— Апостол ненасилия (К.
Н. Ломунов, Россия)...........................
97
Глава III. Противники войны по
мотивам совести в Российской Империи................................................................ 113
— Русские сектанты-пацифисты
и военная служба 1874-1914 гг. (П. Брок, Канада).................................................................................
115
— История
пацифистского движения в секте духоборцев (XVIII-XX вв.) (С. А. Иникова, Россия)........................................................
122
— Канадские духоборы
как миротворцы (К. Тарасов, Канада).
137
Отказ от военной
службы по мотивам совести в меннонитских общинах царской России (Л. Клиппенштейн,
Канада)........... 150
— Адвентисты Седьмого
Дня и отказ от участия в военных действиях в Российской Империи (Д. Хайнц, Австрия).......... 172
Глава IV. Международные
аспекты российского миротворчества на рубеже XIX и XX веков....................... 177
— Российский пацифизм
и западное миротворчество в начале XX в. (становление и деятельность российских обществ мира) (Р.
М. Илюхина, Д. А.Сдвижков, Россия).............................................
179
371
— И. Блох и Я.
Новиков — российские миротворцы на рубеже столетий (П. ван ден Данген, Великобритания)....................... 202
— В плену у фурии
войны (Антимилитаристский протест художника В. В. Верещагина) (О. А. Шалимов,
Россия)............................
215
— Гаагская
конференция мира 1899 г. и идеи пацифизма (В. М. Хайцман, Россия).........................................................................
225
Глава V. Противники войны по
мотивам совести в Первую мировую войну и в первые годы Советской власти...... 241
— Антивоенное
воззвание толстовцев (публикация Р. М. Илюхиной, Россия)......................................................................
243
— "Всеобщий
примиритель" (тема войны, насилия и революции в жизни и творчестве М. Волошина)
(Т. А. Павлова, Россия).. 245
— Пацифисты-протестанты
в Советской России между двумя мировыми войнами (У. Саватски, США)................................. 262
— От квакерского
служения к квакерскому присутствию: квакеры в Советской России, 1917-1927 (Д.
МакФадден, США)............
285
— Объединенный Совет
религиозных общин и групп как одно из проявлений русского религиозного пацифизма
(Е. И. Гетель, Россия)...........................................................................................
301
Глава VI. Независимые
миротворческие идеи и группы в период "холодной войны"
— Пацифизм "шестидесятников"...................................................
319
([Алесь
Адамович], Белоруссия)...................................................
321
— Московская группа
"Доверие" (Т. И. Телюкова, Россия)....... 326
— Независимые
миротворческие движения в период тоталитаризма и их роль в окончании
"холодной войны" (Р. М. Илюхина, Т. А. Павлова, Россия)..............................................
336
Заключение.
Ненасильственная альтернатива в России и пацифизм.....................................................................................
347
Summary........................................................................................... 351
372
CONTENTS
Preface..............................................................................................
5
Introduction (Peter Brock, Canada)............................................... 7
Chapter 1. Sources.
— Peace ideas in Russian Chronicles of XI-XIII
centuries (Y. Shchapov, Russia)........................................................................
11
— Peace ideas in Russian hagiography (N. Malakhova,
Russia).. 23
— Peace ideas in Russian Orthodox Liturgical practice (A.
Yagodovsky, Russia)....................................................................
42
Chapter 2. Evolution of peace ideas in XVII-XIX
centuries
— Meditations on peace in Russian folklore and in
social thought of XVII-XVIII centuries (L. Pushkaryov, Russia)............................. 57
— Peace ideas in Russian social thought of XIX century
(E. Rudnitskaya, Russia)....................................................................
72
— Idea of non-violence in progress:
"non-resistance" of Leo Tolstoy (P. C. Bori, Italy).............................................................................
88
— The Apostle of non-violence (K. Lomunov, Russia).................. 97
Chapter 3. Conscientious objection in the Russian
Empire
— Some Russian pacifist sectarians and military
service, 1874-1914 (P. Brock, Canada).........................................................................
115
— History of pacifist movement in Doukhobor sect,
XVIII-XX с. (S.
Inikova, Russia).............................................................................
122
— Canadian Doukhobors as peacemakers (K. Tarasoff, Canada) 137
— Conscientious objection in the Mennonite Communities
of Tsarist Russia (L. Klippenstein)................................................................
150
— Seventh-day Adventists and Noncombatancy in the
Russian Empire (D.Heinz, Austria)...........................................................................
172
Chapter 4. International aspects of Russian
peacemaking at the turn of the Century
— Russian pacifism and Western peace-making at early
XX century (beginnings and activity of Russian peace societies) (R. Ilukhina,
D. Sdvizhkov, Russia)........................................................................
179
— I. Bliokh and Y. Novikov — Russian peacemakers at
the turn of the Century (P. van den Dungen, Great Britain)................................ 202
— Captured by the Fury of War (Antimilitary protest by
the painter V. Vereshchagin (O. Shalimov, Russia)........................................... 215
373
— The Hague Peace conference of 1899 and ideas of
pacifism (V. Khaytsman, Russia)......................................................................
225
Chapter 5. Conscientious objectors during wartime and
in the first years of the Soviet state
— Antimilitary appeal by Tolstoyans (publication by R.
Ilukhina, Russia).........................................................................................................
243
— "General peace-maker" (war, violence and
revolution in the life and works of M. Voloshin) (T. Pavlova, Russia)................................. 245
— Pacifist protestants in Soviet Russia between the
wars (W. Sawatsky, USA).............................................................................
262
— From Quaker Service to Quaker presence: Quakers in Soviet
Russia, 1917-1927 (D. McFadden, USA)....................................
285
— United Council of Religious Communities and Groups as
one of manifestations of Russian religious pacifism (E. Goetel, Russia) 301
Chapter 6. Independent peace ideas and groups during
the "cold war"
— Pacifism of "shestidesyatniki" ([A.Adamovich], Belorussia)...... 321
— "Trust" group in Moscow (T. Telukova, Russia)......................... 326
— Totalitarianism and free thinking: the role of
independent peace and pacifist ideas in the USSR in the ending of the
"cold war" (R. Ilukhina and T. Pavlova, Russia)................................................................
336
Conclusion. Nonviolent alternative in Russia and pacifism... 347
Summary...........................................................................................
351
374
Долгий
путь
российского
пацифизма
Утверждено к печати
Институтом всеобщей истории РАН
Оригинал-макет: Е. С. Токарева
Л. Р. № 020915 от 23 сентября 1994 г.
Подписано к печати 31.03.1997
формат 60x90 1/16
Гарнитура Скул
Печать офсетная
Усл. печ. л. 23,5. Тираж 700 экз.
Заказная. Тип. Зак. 655 т
Изд: «Долгий
путь российского пацифизма», М., ИВИ РАН, 1997.